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INTRODUCCIÓN A LA BIOLOGÍA Y CRECIMIENTO DE LOS PECES

INTRODUCCIÓN A LA BIOLOGÍA Y CRECIMIENTO DE LOS PECES

Hola amigos! aqui les dejo parte de un informe de acuicultura comercial,
 (  Fuente:  Miguel Alberto Mancini. 2002. Cursos Introducción a la Producción Animal y Producción Animal I, FAV UNRC.)

 No es exactamente referido a la acuariofilia de acuarios ya que es para produccion,pero tiene datos muy interesantes de los que podemos aprender mucho, por ello aqui copio una parte de el que considere interesante:
Lo complemento con el post Sistemas de órganos de peces

 

Introducción a la biologiía y crecimiento de los peces, nociones sobre anatomía y fisiología

 

Los peces son animales de sangre fría (ectotermos = poiquilotermos), caracterizados por poseer vértebras, branquias y aletas. 
Dependen fundamentalmente del agua, que es el medio donde viven. Su origen se remonta al período devónico, hace 300 millones de años. Los peces son los vertebrados más numerosos estimando que hay
cerca de 20.000 especies vivientes (cuadro 1).
Cuadro 1. Composición porcentual de los grupos de vertebrados más recientes

Vertebrados    Número         %
Anfibios          2500            6,0
Mamíferos       4500            10,8
Reptiles          6000            14,4
Aves              8600            20,7
Peces           20000         48,1

Clasificación de los peces

 

Los peces de clasifican en tres grandes grupos elementales:

 

Placodermos: 

Son peces acorazados, especies arcaicas ya extinguidas.

 

Condroictios:

Peces cartilaginosos como es el caso de rayas, tiburones, etc. Se caracterizan por tener esqueleto cartilaginoso, piel recubierta por escamas placoideas (con una placa en la base y una espina saliente), poseer de cinco a siete pares de branquias separadas por laminillas branquiales (por eso también se los denomina elasmobranquios; elasmo = laminilla), aleta caudal con un lóbulo mayor que el otro y la boca provista de varias series de dientes, muy duros y puntiagudos, que son reemplazados por los anteriores cuando estos se caen por el uso.

 

Osteictios:

Peces óseos (teleosteos), son los más numerosos y complejos, y donde ya se han clasificado mas de
20.000 especies. La mayoría de ellos se encuentran actualmente poblando las aguas continentales y marítimas.

Entre las características sobresalientes de los peces óseos se destacan las siguientes:
1- Son vertebrados acuáticos de esqueleto óseo.
2- Respiran por medio de branquias
3- Tienen la piel recubiertas por escamas.
4- Presentan sistemas circulatorio simple.
5- Poseen aletas de diversas estructuras y formas.
6- Su reproducción es generalmente externa.
7- Son animales poiquilotermos.
8- Tienen vejiga gaseosa.

 

La anatomía de los peces (figura 1) se encuentra condicionada por dos grandes factores que inciden sobre su existencia, por una parte el medio acuático, y por otra la condición de animales poiquilotermos. Muchas de las funciones de los teleosteos son similares a las de otros vertebrados y no deben considerarse como primitivos precursores de dichos mamíferos, son avanzados desde el punto de vista de la evolución y casi infinitos en su diversidad.

 

Tegumento

La piel es la primera barrera de protección del pez frente al medio acuático. Esta es húmeda y tiene en la epidermis glándulas mucosas que a través de la secreción de mucus lubrican la piel y la protegen de agentes externos nocivos.

 El mucus puede aumentar por agentes irritantes, parásitos y bacterias y, por otra parte, le permite al pez desplazarse mejor. El olor típico de los peces esta dado por el mucus.

También se encuentran en la piel una cubierta de escamas que protegen al cuerpo y una serie de pigmentos y células sensitivas de la línea lateral. Algunos peces recién nacidos, como las truchas, no tienen escamas. 
Estas se forman a medida que crecen, comenzando aproximadamente a desarrollarse desde los tres centímetros de longitud a partir de la dermis.
 Las escamas tienen cuatro campos: anterior, posterior y dos laterales; solo el posterior es visible; es resto esta cubierto por la dermis.
Todos los factores que influyen en el crecimiento se traducen de alguna manera en la escama. 
De todos estos factores quizá el mas importante sea la alimentación, ya que cuando el pez se alimenta abundantemente, la escama presenta una zona bien calcificada y ancha y cuando el pez deja de alimentarse (por causas como frío, reproducción o disminución en la cantidad de alimento) hay poca calcificación y se forma una zona estrecha que se interpretaría como anillo de crecimiento. 
Mediante el estudio de las escamas se puede determinar en algunos casos la edad y el número de frezas, entre otras cosas.
Los pigmentos son sustancias químicas producidas en su mayoría por el pez. Se alojan en células especializadas llamadas cromatóforos o están impregnados en los tejidos.

 

Estos pigmentos pertenecen a cuatro grupos principales: carotenoides, flavinas, melaninas y guaninas


-La melanina es sintetizada en la dermis en células llamadas melanóforos que según su concentración producen color pardo, gris o negro.

-Las guaninas soncristales macroscópicos de desecho metabólico que se depositan en la superficie de la escama dando una cubierta plateada altamente reflectiva.

-Los carotenoides son pigmentos de tonalidad anaranjada que no son sintetizados por el pez, sino que deben ser incorporados por el alimento, ya sea a través del balanceado o por medio de crustáceos en el ambiente natural. Luego sí son reelaborados por el pez y fijados a los tejidos adiposos. La flavina produce
color rojo o amarillo.


Las coloraciones de los peces pueden deberse también a fenómenos físicos de refracción de la luz. Por ejemplo, las guaninas pueden dar coloraciones iridiscentes. Estos cambios de color les sirven para camuflarse,
reconocer especies, sexo, etc
.

 

 

Órganos de los sentidos 

 

- Vista

Los ojos de los peces carecen de párpados y de glándulas lagrimales. Los cristalinos esféricos sobresalen y al estar ubicados a ambos lados de la cabeza, le permite al pez ampliar su campo visual.
 Para enfocar la imagen sobre la retina, en vez de modificar la curvatura del cristalino como en el caso del humano, los peces lo hacen acercando o separando el cristalino mediante el ligamento que lo sostiene. En general, los peces están adaptados a una visión cercana y de poca luz.

 

- Tacto

 

Es bastante complejo ya que los peces están inmersos en un medio líquido y una vibración lenta puede ser percibida desde lejos a diferencia del medio aéreo. Hay papilas táctiles distribuidas a lo largo del todo el cuerpo, muy abundante en las barbas o barbillones y en la línea lateral. Esta última por ejemplo le permite percibir ondas de presión en el agua.

 

- Olfato

Al estar las partículas disueltas en el agua, no se puede precisar bien si se trata de sentido del gusto o del olfato, pero se lo toma como olfato. 
Es un sentido a distancia que le permite detectar presas, enemigos, presencia
de un curso de agua, etc. Los peces poseen dos orificios nasales los cuales están separados por un puente a cada lado de la cabeza, un orificio de entrada y uno de salida. 
En cada canal hay células sensoriales especiales que se comunican con el cerebro. El olor disuelto en el agua al ponerse en contacto con esas células es transmitido al cerebro y de esa forma es percibido. 
En otros peces, en cambio, hay una solo abertura de cada lado. Puede existir
también un repliegue epitelial en forma de pabellón que permite captar mejor los olores.

 

- Gusto

Radica en los llamados botones gustativos que son células sensibles a ciertas sustancias químicas relacionadas con los alimentos, que están distribuidos en el interior de la boca, faringe, esófago y epitelio bucal.

-Audición y equilibrio

El oído es a la vez el órgano del equilibrio. No hay oído externo ni medio, solo interno. Existe una serie de canales que contienen endolinfa. Cuando el pez se mueve este líquido lo denota y lo transmite al S.N., regulando la posición si fuese necesario. Por otra parte en el utrículo hay otolitos (concreciones calcáreas que también sirven
para saber la edad de los peces) que están rodeados de "pelos" sensibles, y según se apoyen los otolitos en unos u otros pelos el pez advierte si esta derecho o inclinado. En el sáculo hay dos otolitos mas que están conectados con el nervio auditivo, encargado de recoger vibraciones sonoras.

 

Anatomía interna

- Aparato respiratorio

El opérculo es la cubierta ósea que tapa las branquias o "agallas". Por medio de las branquias respiran los peces, las que están formadas por un fino epitelio muy sensible a las características del agua (materias en suspensión, pH), falta de vitaminas y presencia de agentes biológicos (parásitos, bacterias, hongos).
El intercambio entre el O2 y el CO2 de la sangre se produce a nivel de las laminillas branquiales. Durante el proceso respiratorio el pez mantiene los opérculos cerrados, abre la boca, el agua entra por succión y se llena la cavidad bucal. Luego cierra la boca y el agua pasa por una amplia abertura branquial saliendo al exterior a través
de los opérculos. La circulación de la sangre es en contracorriente con respecto a la del agua, logrando así que el intercambio de gases sea de hasta aproximadamente el 80 %; de lo contrario solo sería del 50 %. La frecuencia respiratoria dependerá del estrés, contenido de oxígeno disuelto del agua, nivel de metabolismo, temperatura, etc.
Las branquias además de participar en la respiración también participan en la regulación de sales y agua entre el pez y el medio acuático.
El CO2 es un gas altamente hidrosoluble de modo que se libera fácilmente por las branquias. El intercambio gaseoso tiene lugar en las laminillas secundarias. En comparación con los animales de respiración aérea, el gasto energético es muy alto, especialmente cuando el O2 es bajo, cuando el agua se presenta contaminada y en
momentos de temperaturas elevadas. En las laminillas secundarias se encuentran linfocitos, fagocitos, eosinófilos y en los peces eurihalinos hay células pálidas de secreción salina. 
En los peces planctónicos existen las branquiespinas que sirven para retener el plancton. Hay una relación estrecha entre tamaño y número de branquiespinas y dieta del pez.

 

- Sistema digestivo

. Boca

Algunos peces no tienen dientes o si los tienen son muy pequeños, como en el caso de los planctófagos o fitófagos. Los dientes pueden ser vomerianos (en el paladar superior), maxilares, pueden estar ubicados en la lengua o en la faringe (misión trituradora). Estos últimos se encuentran en el quinto arco branquial modificado que
carece de branquias, como en el caso de la carpa común (Cyprinus carpio) y de la carpa herbívora o "sogyo" (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Los dientes están concebidos mas para la captura de los alimentos que para la masticación y están mucho más desarrollados en el caso de los animales ictiófagos como el dorado (Salminus maxillosus) y la tararira (Hoplias malabaricus). En estos peces predadores la boca es terminal y de gran tamaño.
No presentan glándulas salivales, si en cambio glándulas mucosas.

. Faringe y esófago

La faringe actúa fundamentalmente como filtro evitando que pasen las partículas del agua a los delicados filamentos branquiales, participando de en este acto también los rastrillos branquiales. El esófago comunica la faringe con estómago, siendo generalmente de paredes gruesas, lo que le permite distenderse para el pasaje de
presas o de alimento.


 
. Estómago

Es de distinta forma y tamaño según la especie. En las especies predadoras o carnívoras es amplio y con paredes distendibles que le permite dilatarse para facilitar la entrada de grandes presas. 
La salida del estómago al intestino esta limitada por el píloro. En los salmónidos, el alimento en el estómago se desmenuza realmente por acción de ácidos, enzimas digestivas (como la pepsina que digiere en parte las proteínas) y por acción trituradora de las paredes del estómago.
 Alrededor del estómago hay una serie de estructuras que conforman los ciegos pilóricos, los que se hallan rodeados generalmente por tejido adiposo blanco, salvo en situaciones de ayuno.
Siempre hablando de salmónidos, dentro de ese tejido adiposo se encuentra el páncreas. La función que cumplen
los ciegos pilóricos es absorbente y de neutralización de acidez, creando mayor espacio adicional para la
digestión. En otras especies como en el caso de los Acantinopterigios (pejerrey), el páncreas esta disperso en el
hígado constituyendo el hepatopáncreas.

. Intestino

Las enzimas desdoblan las grasas, proteínas y azucares que luego de atravesar la pared intestinal son llevados al hígado. El resto de alimentos como fibras, restos de caracoles, etc., se evacuan junto con las heces. El largo del intestino es variable, siendo corto en los depredadores y muy largo en los fitófagos.
El alimento utilizado en la forma de balanceado comercial tiene alta cantidad de proteína (en algunos casos superior al 40%) y alta cantidad de energía (dada principalmente por lípidos).
 En general un coeficiente de conversión bueno es de alrededor de 1,2 - 1,4:1. El exceso de grasa es utilizado como energía y se almacena principalmente en músculo. El tiempo que tarde en recorrer el alimento el tubo digestivo puede variar desde unas
pocas horas hasta días, dependiendo de los distintos procesos metabólicos que están dados principalmente por la temperatura, ya que a mayor temperatura se aceleran.

. Hígado

Es la principal fábrica del organismo interviniendo en distintos procesos metabólicos. Es blando, de color pardo rojizo y muy voluminoso, presentando en ocasiones de color rosa – crema, situación que no siempre indica un cuadro patológico. El hígado suele sufrir de infiltración grasa debido a ingestión de alimentos en mal estado o en casos de sobrealimentación.
La vesícula biliar está bien desarrollada. El colédoco vierte en la primera porción del intestino delgado la bilis, que emulsiona las grasas para que sean fácilmente atacadas por las lipasas pancreáticas. Por su parte el páncreas segrega amilasas, tripsina y quimiotripsina. El conducto pancreático vierte casi siempre en el colédoco.

 

- Sistema Excretor

 

El riñón es una formación pardo-negruzca que se extiende en la parte superior del abdomen desde la cabeza hasta el ano, hacia ventral de la columna vertebral y dorsal de la vejiga gaseosa. En algunos peces, como en la trucha, al principio es un órgano par y luego, en el adulto, se transforma en impar. Es el principal filtro del
organismo. Filtra la sangre a través de los glomérulos y la conduce por tubos a conductos pares, los uréteres, que la llevan a la vejiga que se encuentra por encima del ano. El conducto de la vejiga vierte a través de la abertura urogenital, que sirve también para la expulsión de las ovas.


La excreción se basa fundamentalmente en:

♦ Filtración: Dada principalmente por diferencias de presión y por diferencias de P.M.

♦ Reabsorción: Recuperación de sustancias no desechables.

♦ Secreción: Expulsión de sustancias tóxicas que se encuentran en concentraciones excesivas.

Los peces excretan casi todo el nitrógeno en forma de amoníaco (90 %). Solo una pequeña parte (10 %) sale en forma de urea. El principal órgano excretor del amoníaco son las branquias. El agua dulce tiene una concentración de sales menor que la del pez, por lo que tiende a penetrar en el organismo (a través de las branquias y faringe principalmente). 
El riñón debe eliminar el agua en exceso produciendo orina diluida, mientras que en las branquias se recuperan sales en forma activa (las branquias también juegan un rol importante en la osmorregulación). En agua de mar ocurre lo contrario, y los peces la tienden a eliminar sales por medio de las branquias, produciendo orina en pequeñas cantidades.
Otra de las funciones del riñón es la hematopoyesis, función que se cumple principalmente en el extremo anterior del riñón. Otro lugar donde se producen estas células es en el bazo.

 

- Sistema Circulatorio

 

La circulación en los peces tiene las características de ser simple, ya que pasa una sola vez por el corazón, y cerrada, porque no sale de los vasos. Por el corazón siempre circula sangre impura (no oxigenada) o venosa.
El corazón consta de dos cavidades, una anterior, la aurícula y una posterior, el ventrículo. Este último de forma triangular y muy musculoso, que le permite proporcionar la presión principal al interior de una estructura blanca, el cono arterioso, que actúa como equilibrador de presión elástica, convirtiendo el impulso del corazón en una oleada uniforme de sangre hacia las branquias, de donde a su vez, pasa al resto del organismo para proporcionar oxígeno a los tejidos 
Una vez que pasa a travez de las branquias la presion se reduce fuertemente y 
su paso a través de los tejidos es relativamente lenta. En los capilares el O2 es intercambiado por el CO2 y productos de desecho. 
La sangre finalmente vuelve al corazón por medio de la vena cava o principal, que pasa a través de los riñones.
Cuando la sangre pasa por los capilares, cierta cantidad de líquido (linfa), se pierde por los tejidos.
Esa linfa es el liquido acuoso que se desprende de un filete de pez fresco.
 Esta linfa vuelve a la circulacion mediante una serie de vasos linfáticos, que vierten a la corriente sanguínea antes del corazón. En algunos peces, como en el caso de las truchas el volumen de la linfa es bastante superior al de la sangre.

Imágenes que te pueden ser útiles

Generalidades del metabolismo de los Poiquilodermos 

 

El metabolismo puede dividirse en metabolismo externo (sustancias ingresadas y excretadas por el animal) y el metabolismo interno (transformaciones que tienen lugar en el seno del cuerpo mismo). 
La conservación de la energía tiene plena validez con estos procesos fisiológicos. Conforme a las leyes de la termodinámica, la transformación de una forma de energía en otra siempre origina un incremento de la entropia, o perdida de energia como calor.
Las transformaciones de la energía del alimento que se realizan en el metabolismo interno se relacionan de manera escalonada por medio de procesos catalíticos con una mínima perdida posible de calor, sin embargo esta última no puede ser eliminada por completo.
En animales endotermos (homeotermos), que obtienen la temperatura corporal de su propia actividad metabólica, el calor producido por la oxidación del alimento (ya sea por medio de un incremento de la entropía o debido a la utilización de energía libre en procesos de mantenimiento, de los cuales el resultado final es calor), se
utiliza, por lo menos en parte, para calentar el cuerpo.

La situación cambia en los poiquilotermos (ectotermos), incluyendo los peces, que obtienen su calor del medio y no son capaces de mantener la temperatura corporal muy diferente a la que impera en el medio acuatico.
En este caso, el calor producido por la actividad metabólica simplemente se pierde, de modo que la porción no utilizada de la energía del alimento que se convierte en incremento de calor, debe considerarse un gasto inevitable en el consumo de energía.
[quote]Es decir que los peces son organismos que dependen en buena medida de la temperatura de su entorno, no existiendo diferencias evidentes entre peces de agua dulce. [/quote]
Por ello, no es necesaria ninguna energía especial para mantener la temperatura corporal como sucede en los homeotermos. 
Solo puede presentarse un leve sobrerecalentamiento merced a movimientos intensos de corta duración, menos de 1º C en músculos y todavía mucho menos en cavidades orgánicas como estomago o intestino.
 Este hecho requiere particular atención, debiendo considerarse como una de las ventajas comparativas más importantes de la producción piscícola.
[quote]La temperatura del agua, como vemos, es un aspecto fundamental dentro de fisiología de los peces poiquilotermos. El incremento de la misma aumenta el metabolismo y en consecuencia los requerimientos energéticos de los animales, los que se deberán satisfacer mediante el consumo de materia orgánica del medio natural o mediante el agregado de alimentos adicionales en el caso de cultivos controlados. También influye en la reproduccion, supervivencia de estadios larvales e inmunidad entre varios aspectos.[/quote]
Sin embargo , el efecto es variable entre una especie y otra; así para la trucha arco iris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cuya temperatura óptima es de 15º C, temperaturas superiores a 20º C, que por otra parte son buena para ciprínidos (carpas), pueden ser críticas o letales.
[quote]Un aumento de 10º C produce que las tasas de reacciones químicas y biológicas aumenten el doble o el triple.
Por lo tanto, los peces consumirán 2 a 3 veces más oxígeno a 30º C que a 20º C. 
Por dicha razón y en líneas generales los requerimientos de oxígeno son mas críticos en peces de aguas cálidas que frías[/quote]. El incremento de la tasa de consumo de O2 causado por el aumento de 10º C a Q10 que según la ley de Van't Hoff se utiliza para expresar el efecto de la temperatura sobre diversos procesos quimicos y fisicos:

Q10 = (L1/ L2 ) (10/ t1-t2), 

Donde L1 = Rapidez al proceso de la temperatura t1 y L2 = rapidez del proceso a la temperatura t2.

Por lo tanto, Q10 expresa el incremento relativo en la rapidez del proceso al aumentar en 10 grados C. la temperatura, que para muchos procesos bioquímicos es aproximadamente igual a 2, lo cual significa que con un incremento de 10 grados C. dichos procesos se duplican.
La relación entre la temperatura y el consumo de O2 se presenta de la siguiente manera, siempre que los peces tengan tiempo suficiente para la acomodacion:
♦ El consumo de O2 se incrementa proporcionalmente con la temperatura segun lo predice la ley de Van't Hoff, hasta alcanzar una tasa máxima.
♦ La tasa de consumo mas alta se mantiene en un intervalo pequeño de temperatura
♦ El consumo después de la tasa máxima disminuye rápidamente, conforme la temperatura se continúa incrementando.
♦ Finalmente ocurre una temperatura letal.

La temperatura, la luz, el alimento y la concentración de oxígeno afectan el grado y el patrón de actividad.
Dicha actividad está determinada por la disponibilidad de energía metabólica por arriba de la ya destinada al metabolismo para mantenimiento. El metabolismo de actividad no sigue obligadamente por la acción de la temperatura el mismo curso que el metabolismo basal. La diferencia entre el metabolismo de actividad y basal refleja el consumo de oxígeno disponible para la actividad de los peces (zona de actividad), es decir que, deduciendo la cantidad de energía (o consumo de oxígeno) dirigida a mantenimiento sin movimiento (metabolismo estándar), la diferencia, cuando el pez nada, puede adjudicarse a la mecánica de propulsión; la energía disponible es igual a campo de actividad.

En la trucha arcoiris, aumenta el metabolismo basal continuamente desde 5 hasta 25 grados C., mientras que el metabolismo de actividad se estaciona o disminuye en la zona de 15-25º C (cuadro 2), lo que debe considerarse como indicio de la cantidad presente de oxigeno para cubrir convenientemente las necesidades aumentadas, mas aun sabiendo que el oxigeno se comporta de manera inversamente proporcional a la temperatura
 
Temp.dl(ºC)   Metb. basal   Metblism d activdd (natación 0,5-1,6 m/s)Zonade actvdd
5                  36               384                                                   348
10                 42               468                                                   426
15                 78               576                                                   498
20                 84               570                                                   486
25                 138             478                                                    336

Los organismos acuáticos se pueden clasificar según su tolerancia a la temperatura en euritermos y estenotermos, de amplio y estrecho intervalo de temperatura respectivamente. La tolerancia a las diferentes temperaturas máximas y mínimas varía según las especies. En función de ello, y siempre que los cambios de temperatura se realicen en forma gradual, se pueden agrupar en:

 

a) De aguas frías: estenotérmicos, resisten pequeños intervalos de temperatura, usualmente de 4 hasta 15º C,
como la mayoría de los salmónidos (salmones y truchas). Es especial la trucha arco iris (O. mykiss), mejorada genéticamente para cría intensiva, que esta adaptada para resistir cortos periodos a temperaturas mayores a 20ºC.

 

b) De aguas cálidas, euritérmicos, resisten intervalos de temperaturas de 6 a mas de 30º C. Se incluyen aquí las especies de mayor producción mundial en piscicultura como la carpa (C. carpio), carpa plateada (Aristichthys nobilis), carpa herbívora (C. idella), catfish o bagre del canal (Ictalurus punctatus) y tilapias (Oreochromis
sp.).

 

c) De aguas tropicales, estenotérmicos, resisten intervalos que van de 25 a 35º C como algunas especies de la ictiofauna de América Central y del Sur, como la cachama (Colossoma sp).

Otra variable a considerar en el metabolismo de los peces es el contenido de oxígeno disuelto en el agua. 
En organismos en movimientos, la actividad metabólica aumenta con el contenido de oxígeno del agua y a la inversa disminuye al descender dicha tasa de oxígeno. Una baja de O2 no significa la atenuación del metabolismo en si mismo, sino que obedece a una limitación de la actividad del pez.


Para los salmónidos, una de las familias que más demandan oxígeno, el punto crítico suele ser muy elevado, de manera que en dichos peces existe también dependencia respiratoria en las proximidades del valor de saturación. 
La talla de los peces también se relaciona con el metabolismo, aunque no así con la edad de los mismos.


Se toma como criterio la actividad metabólica referida a la unidad de peso, pues a medida que aumenta el tamaño del cuerpo,  disminuye considerablemente la tasa metabólica. En general, la relación que existe entre el metabolismo y
el peso de la pieza se expresa por:

Q = A pk, (de manera aproximada Q = A p0,67), o expresado en términos de logaritmos: 

log Q = log A + k log p, donde Q significa el metabolismo total del organismo estudiado (medido en función del  consumo de oxígeno en mg de O2/h), A es un coeficiente que corresponde al metabolismo total de un animal con la unidad de peso (1 g), p representa el peso de la pieza en g y k una constante que expresa la variación de la tasa metabólica en función del peso de la pieza. Si k fuera 1, el metabolismo y el peso del ejemplar serían directamente proporcionales; sin embargo, k se mantiene por lo comun entre 0,75 y 0,85, con lo que se establece
una relación inversa entre metabolismo y peso.

 

Tras varias recopilaciones de numerosas investigaciones, se puede concluir que la tasa metabólica de rutina de los peces de agua dulce y salada (sobre la base del consumo de O2 en mg/h a 20º C) es:

Q = 0,4 p0,8     o bien
log Q = 0,8 log p - 0,3904 

Esto significa que la tasa metabolica se reduce en un 21% cuando el aumento del peso es 10 veces,  o que la tasa metabólica disminuye 90 % cuando el peso de los ejemplares pasa de 10 mg a 1 kg ( cuadro 3)

Cuadro 3. Cifras de consumo diario de energía en peces de diferente  talla para metabolismo e rutina a 20º C. 

Peso de los peces Consumo de Energía
1 mg                   600
10 mg                 380
100 mg                2353
1 g                     150
10 g                   100
100 g                  60
1 kg                    38

 

Crecimiento de los peces 

El crecimiento de los peces depende de diversos factores, entre los cuales el tamaño de la ración, el peso corporal y la temperatura son de especial importancia en sistemas de cría intensiva. Cuando el alimento es insuficiente tanto para el mantenimiento como para el crecimiento, este último se inhibe por completo. 
Por el contrario se puede lograr un alto crecimiento con abundante alimento, pero según el aprovechamiento de este, será más redituable la explotación (cuadro 4). El crecimiento es máximo con alimentación a saciedad o ad libitum, aunque el índice de conversión puede disminuir, por lo que la tasa de alimentación óptima estará determinada por eficiencia económica, considerando tanto el costo del alimento como el valor de biomasa de los peces, recordando que en acuicultura el alimento tiene un costo elevado. 

Cuadro 4. Efecto de la tasa de ingestión en el crecimiento e índice de conversion de la lubina europea.

Cantidad alimento              Ad libitum       80 %      60 %       40 %
Tasa de aliment(%/kg/d)      2,94             2,36       1,79        1,22
Tasa de crecimien(%/d)       1,35             1,25       1,08         0,73
Índice de conversión            2,27             1,96       1,70        1,69 

El crecimiento también depende del tamaño corporal (peso). El peso o la longitud del cuerpo son los principales parámetros por medio de los cuales los piscicultores determinan el nivel de alimentación óptimo. En un conjunto de condiciones ambientales dadas, el crecimiento potencial depende del peso del pez. El crecimiento
es muy rápido en las fases de desarrollo de larvas y juveniles, en donde llega a ser superior al 30 % del peso del alevín por día, para decrecer a a medida que el pez auments de peso,de modo tal que un pez de 1 kg por lo general crece menos del 1% diario.

 

- Factores relacionados a los peces

1-Características genéticas

La endogamia produce degeneración morfológica y reduce el crecimiento, mientras que el cruzamiento de genotipos distintos en muchos casos da por resultado heterosis, con un mejor crecimiento de la descendencia que cualquiera de los padres.
En la carpa común se encontró un vínculo estrecho entre le crecimiento y la cantidad de escamas. El genotipo sin escamas (carpas de piel) presentó menor crecimiento que los genotipos totalmente cubiertos de escamas o con cobertura limitada de estas ( carpa espejo ).

2-Sexo

Para algunas especies como la tilapia, el macho crece más rápido que la hembra, mientras que lo contrario
sucede con la carpa común. 

3-Estado fisiológico

El estado fisiológico y sanitario influyen considerablemente en el crecimiento de los peces. Así, peces
parasitados o con trastornos fisiológicos originados por causas ambientales como anoxia o envenenamiento
retardan el crecimiento. Lo mismo ocurre con desequilibrios causados por factores sociales como dominancia o
lucha territorial (de allí que se hagan periódicas clasificaciones de los ejemplares en función de su talla) y
presencia de peces de otras especies. Se establece una relación de jerarquía de tamaño, en donde se comprobó que
cuando se retiraban alevines de trucha café grandes, los más pequeños presentaban un mayor grado de crecimiento
específico, que se volvía a retrasar al reingresar nuevos alevines grandes, es decir que el crecimiento específico
del individuo depende de su posición en orden de peso decreciente.
Durante la maduración gonadal, en muchos peces (como la carpa) se inhibe o incluso se suspende
temporalmente el crecimiento. Las gónadas desarrolladas pueden representar mas del 20% del peso del pez  e incluso llegar a superar el 30 %. El material para estos órganos se extrae del alimento, de tejidos somáticos o de ambos. De este modo el desarrollo temprano y frecuente de las gónadas es una gran desventaja y debe evitarse.
Por esta razón el estudio del metabolismo y la nutrición de los peces en estanque se suele limitar a peces que no estén sexualmente maduros y cuyas gónadas no se desarrollen en el periodo de cultivo. 

 

Condiciones ambientales que influyen en el crecimiento


Los principales factores ambientales son la temperatura, la luz, constituyentes químicos del agua, concentración de oxígeno y presencia de catabolitos. De ellos, los dos últimos se relacionan con la biomasa de peces presentes en estanques. 

TEMPERATURA
Como se ha mencionado, en los ectotermos el crecimiento es afectado por la temperatura, aumentando hasta un valor óptimo para luego disminuir hasta la temperatura letal superior. El efecto de la temperatura (o de la luz) en
el crecimiento puede ser mediado por acción de hormonas como la somatropina (producida por la hipófisis) y la tiroxina (tiroides) que participan en el metabolismo y según algunos autores en el crecimiento. Se ha demostrado que la maxima actividad para la trucha marrón (Salmo trutta) de 3 años de edad, correspondió a la mitad del
verano con temperaturas de 12 a 15º C.
Una interacción muy estudiada es la existente entre temperatura y cantidad de alimento. 
El incremento del crecimiento solo se da si es acompañado por un aumento del consumo del alimento, aunque se ha observado en algunas especies  que a medida que aumenta el peso de los peces se reducía el efecto de la temperatura sobre el
crecimiento.
Para S. trutta el crecimiento relativo específico (expresado como % del peso corporal al día) alimentadas con raciones máximas aumentó con temperaturas de 3,8 a 12,8º C. El crecimiento maximo se logró entre 12,8 y 13,6º C.para finalmente decaer  hasta 19,5º C; temperaturas similares se han observado para otros salmónidos. Para peces de aguas calidas el máximo intervalo se da entre 28 y 30º C. 

FOTOPERÍODO
Las variaciones cíclicas y estacionales en el crecimiento son reguladas por el periodo de luz, que interactúa de
alguna medida con la temperatura; incluso se ha demostrado en distintas experiencias que influye mas que esta
última, observándose que el crecimiento era mayor en fotoperíodos más largos, al parecer por un mayor consumo de alimentos y mejor conversión del mismo. En peces mantenidos a temperatura constantes (11,5º C), los valores de crecimiento específico fueron significativamente diferentes con 12 horas de luz que con 6 horas.

CALIDAD DEL AGUA
El pH extremo (por debajo de 6,5 y por encima de 9,0) reduce el crecimiento en la mayoría de los peces. Al igual, cambios mas allá del intervalo de tolerancia de salinidad para peces estenohalinos y eurihalinos afectan en gran medida el crecimiento. La carpa común con un límite de salinidad de 11,5 g/l crece menos a medida que la salinidad aumenta sobre los 5  g/l. Algunas especies de tilapias crecen mejor en agua salobre, y su crecimiento disminuye al aumentar o disminuir la salinidad, La trucha arco iris crece mejor en agua de mar que en agua dulce.

CONCENTRACIÓN DE OXÍGENO
Se relaciona con el consumo de los alimentos y con el mejor aprovechamiento de éstos. En distintas
experiencias ad libitum realizadas con diferentes especies, se demostró que el crecimiento disminuyó a medida
que el oxígeno se redujo a concentraciones por debajo del nivel de saturación. En primer lugar se afecta el
consumo, pero si el descenso de la concentración de oxígeno continúa, también se altera la conversion del alimento. Existen muchas variaciones según las especies; en bagres del canal (I. punctatus) mantenidos a concentraciones de oxígeno de 100, 60 y 36%  las ganancias promedios fueron de 159, 124 y 65 g.

 

AGENTES TÓXICOS Y CATABOLITOS
La presencia de agentes tóxicos (comúnmente externos) y la acción de catabolitos propios de los peces, también puede afectar el crecimiento. Los catabolitos aumentan a medida que la biomasa de los peces del estanque se incrementa, de los cuales el NH3 se comporta como el más tóxico, por lo cual la tasa de renovación y dilusión del agua juegan aqui un rol muy importante.

 

EFECTO DEL ESTRÉS SOBRE EL CRECIMIENTO DE LOS PECES


Algunas respuestas secundarias observadas durante el estrés de los peces reflejan un aumento del catabolismo.
Se produce un incremento de los niveles de glucosa en el plasma, un aumento del flujo sanguíneo branquial y del
ritmo cardiaco, así como de la afinidad de los eritrocitos por el oxígeno, disminuyendo el glucógeno hepático.
 Un desplazamiento del anabolismo hacia el catabolismo con mpvilizacion rapida de reservas a corto plazo por cuanto permite disponer de energía para hacer frente a situaciones de estrés. Si la situación perdura, afecta la utilización de energía para crecimiento. 
Además de los efectos catabólicos de catecolaminas y corticosteroides, existen otros múltiples factores que se relacionan con el proceso de crecimiento que podría ser afectados por el estrés. Así, se ha podido observar unadisminución de la ingesta en animales estresados, disminucion de la actividad tiroidea, variaciones de los niveles de hormonas esteroideas relacionadas con la reproducción, así como cambios en la viabilidad de los gametos. Las principales causas de estrés se describen en el siguiente cuadro

Ambiente : Cambios de T ºC, salinidad y O2  ,   Productos nitrogenados , Niveles extremos de ph , presencia de contaminantes y velocidad del agua

Alimentación :  Tamaño de la ración , Calidad proteica y lipída , nivel y equilibrio de los minerales ,  vitaminas y factores antinutricionales y sistemas de administracion.

Fuente al comienzo del texto

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Fecha última actualización: 29/04/2020